Bioengineering

Bioengineering (also known as Biological Engineering) is the application of engineering principles to address challenges in the fields of biology and medicine. As a study, it encompasses biomedical engineering and it is related to biotechnology.

Bioengineering applies engineering principles to the full spectrum of living systems. This is achieved by utilising existing methodologies in such fields as molecular biology, biochemistry, microbiology, pharmacology, cytology, immunology and neuroscience and applies them to the design of medical devices, diagnostic equipment, biocompatible materials, and other important medical needs.

Bioengineering is not limited to the medical field. Bioengineers have the ability to exploit new opportunities and solve problems within the domain of complex systems. They have a great understanding of living systems as complex systems which can be applied to many fields including entrepreneurship.

Much as other engineering disciplines also address human health (e.g., prosthetics in mechanical engineering), bioengineers can apply their expertise to other applications of engineering and biotechnology, including genetic modification of plants and microorganisms, bioprocess engineering, and biocatalysis. However, the Main Fields of Bioengineering may be categorised as:

* Biomedical Engineering; Biomedical technology; Biomedical Diagnosis, Biomedical Therapy, Biomechanics, Biomaterials.

* Genetic Engineering; Cell Engineering, Tissue Culture Engineering.

The word was invented by British scientist and broadcaster Heinz Wolf in 1954.

"Bioengineering" is also the term used to describe the use of vegetation in civil engineering construction.

The term bioengineering may also be applied to environmental modifications such as surface soil protection, slope stabilisation, watercourse and shoreline protection, windbreaks, vegetation barriers including noise barriers and visual screens, and the ecological enhancement of an area.

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Technological Manipulation of Biological Organisms

Due to the technological advances in agriculture, world food production has doubled since 1960. Productivity from agricultural land and water usage has tripled. But in the coming years, the population is supposed to rise and the food production cannot keep pace with the growing population. The disappearance of forests, wetlands and other vital habitats will accelerate unless agriculture somehow becomes more productive and less taxing to the environment.

It seems certain that agricultural biotechnology will play a major role in resolving this dilemma. Biotechnology can be employed to improve the quality of seeds and instil in crops resistance to disease, insects and viruses and control extreme temperature. In addition, biotechnology can make foods healthier and more nutritious. Agriculturists should depend less on pesticides but improved environmental conditions.

In the past, new products were developed by exploiting natural materials. Antibiotics were derived from microbes, spices and perfumes from plants and pharmaceutical agents from plants and other organisms.

Today, the tools of biotechnology offer new ways to exploit these biological resources to the maximum benefit of society.

The quality of life on earth is linked directly to the overall quality of environment. Environmental biotechnology is not a new field. Composting and wastewater treatment technologies are familiar examples of old technologies. However, recent and more advanced research in these fields now offers opportunities with inclusion of organisms to make breakthroughs of existing problems.

Different types of organisms act as biological agents. Microorganisms, primarily bacteria and fungi are natures original recyclers. Their capability to transform natural and synthetic chemical into sources of energy and raw materials for their own growth suggests that expensive chemical or physical processes might be replaced with biological processes that are cheap in cost and more environmentally effective.

Bio Fertilizer for Agriculture:

• Bio fertilizers are carrier based microbial inoculants containing cells of specific micro organism mainly bacterium with ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen or by solubilising plant nutrient and render them available to crops
• Bio fertilizer is known to make a number of positive contributions in agriculture.
• Bio-fertilizer supplement fertilizer supplies for meeting the nutrient needs of the crop
• Bio-fertilizers improve the soil physical properties and soil health in general
• Bio-fertilizers fix the atmospheric nitrogen in the soil continuously on the root region of the crop.
• Phosphorus solubilising bacteria can solubilise or mobilize phosphorus in the soil
• Bio-fertilizers also release growth promoting substances and vitamins and help to maintain soil fertility
• Bio-fertilizers improves the soil physical properties and improve the soil humic acid status

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The Human Genome Project

The human genome project was initiated in 1990 by the US Department of Energy (DOE) and National Institutes of Health (NIH). It also involved hundreds of scientists from different organizations worldwide. The primary goal of the project was to determine the entire sequence of nucleotide bases (DNA) in humans (the human genome). In addition to sequencing the DNA, the project goals included identifying all of the genes in the human genome, developing and improving techniques for gene sequencing and genomic data analysis and sharing the data and technologies with the private sector.

A portion of the money raised for the project was used to address ethical, legal and social issues (ELSI) arising from having determined the genome sequence. This aspect of the project made it unique in that it was the first time a project included evaluation of ELSI arising from its own data.

The human genome project was originally scheduled to last 15 years but technological advances resulted in its early completion in 2003. Data collected on the genome sequence and newly developed techniques for screening DNA, resulted in an unprecedented boom in medical research and an abundance of discoveries linking genetic variants to an assortment of diseases such as various cancers, Altzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. The knowledge that was collected will someday lead to cures and treatments and, possibly means of preventing, these diseases.

Data from the human genome project cleared up some incorrect assumptions that were previously accepted knowledge. For example, it was previously thought that the total number of genes in the human genome was 80,000 – 140,000, compared to the 4,400 found in the extenisvely studied bacterium Escherichia coli. However, we now know that there are only about 30,000 genes, 50% of which currently have unknown functions. Less than 2% of the genome encodes proteins and 99.9% of the nucleotide sequence is the same in all people. The last 0.1% can be attributed to individual differences in race, coloring and other physical factors, as well as contributing to genetic diseases. Much of the data collected on non-coding regions of DNA have helped our understanding of chromosome structure and organization.

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Biotech Products & Services

Biofuels

Look for companies involved in R&D for biofuels (such as biodiesel and bioethanol), fermentation and refining technologies, and companies involved in producing the mechanical parts (i.e. automotive parts) required to run on biofuels. Also of interest might be companies that have developed efficient ways of recycling by-products and waste from their own processes (e.g. methane gas) into fuel for driving production, since the increased efficiency will ultimately translate into lower production and disposal costs and higher profits.

Green Walls

Green walls and other bio-based air purification systems use a variety of organisms as part of their air filtering process, to remove VOCs and replenish oxygen supplies in buildings. Look for companies involved in the development and construction of related air purification systems in buildings.

Energy Efficient Buildings

Conserving energy is just as important as finding new ways to produce it. Consider investing in companies that utilize nanoparticles and smart polymers to produce energy-efficient building materials (i.e. smart polymer-based windows).

Bioremediation

Bioremediation has always been an option for cleaning up contaminated soil and water, but is often overlooked in favor of faster approaches like incineration and landfill. With landfills filling up and the financial and environmental costs associated with incineration, biodegradation could soon increase in popularity. Green substitutes for industrial processes and plant effluent treatments are also gaining popularity over traditional methods that require harsh chemicals and large energy (i.e. heat) inputs. This area of biotech always sees increased action when governments crack down on waste disposal and environmental offenders. Given growing public concern for our environment, this is definitely an industrial sector to keep and eye on.

Waste Reduction

Many bioproducts are being used to minimize the flow of waste to landfills, including biopolymers used in the manufacture of biodegradable plastics. Currently, the cost of biodegradable plastics hinders their widespread use as everyday biotech products. Consider investing in companies that have proven products and watch for new techniques for efficient production of plant- or bacterial-based plastics that reduce costs to a competitive level.

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The Human Genome Project?

Genome sequencing technology has led to many recent scientific breakthroughs. These breakthroughs have captured the interest of the public and are being reported with excitement by both the media and scientific journals. The completion of the human genome project (HGP) is an example of newsworthy science that has the potential to have major effects on our society today. The HGP was an initiative started in the early 1990’s that has involved the efforts of hundreds of scientists to generate high-quality reference sequence for the 3 billion base pairs of nucleotide sequence that make up the human genome. The complete string of nucleotide letters that make up the DNA sequence in our cells is often referred to as our genome. This DNA sequence contained in a genome contains the complete code that determines which genes and proteins will be present in human cells. By reading the sequence of the human genome, scientists hope to gain an understanding of the underlying code that determines how a complex biological system, such as a human cell, acts and reacts. Insights from deciphering the human genome have potential to be applied to a better understanding of human health and could help to develop better treatments for disease.

What have we learned from the Human Genome Project?

These major accomplishments in genome sequencing provide a wealth of information that aid in the understanding of basic biological processes. With genome sequence in-hand scientists are now more effectively able to study gene function and explore new areas of research such as how human variation contributes to different diseases worldwide. Scientists today are discovering that the more we learn about the human genome, the more that there is to explore. For instance, as a first step in understanding the genomic code we have learnt that the human genome is made of 3.2 billion nucleotide bases (of which there are four types: A, C, T, G). It is thought that over 30,000 genes are encoded by this sequence. Yet we have also discovered that over 50% of the human genome is repetitive sequence that does not code for any proteins and the function of this large portion of “junk” DNA is still puzzling scientists. Along similar lines, the HGP has shown us that the average length of an expressed gene is 3000 bases long. Genome sequence information has helped scientists more easily identify candidate disease genes, however, we also realize that over 50% of the genes discovered in the human genome are still classified as having unknown function. Human genome sequence information reveals that genome sequences from person to person are almost (99.9%) identical. Interestingly, comparative genomics shows 95% sequence similarity between the human and chimpanzee genomes. Scientists are just beginning to understand how this small amount of variation contributes to differences in disease incidences in different populations. The discovery of about 3 million locations that have single base differences in the human genome (called single nucleotide polymorphisms or SNPs) offers insights into how genomic information could be used to discover information related to the incidence of common human traits, including susceptibility to certain diseases and illnesses.

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Early Biotechnological Practices

There are many important discoveries that have played big roles in the evolution of the biotechnology industry. Modern biochemistry and microbiology techniques utilize a number of molecular techniques that have developed in the past couple of decades as a result of the discovery of PCR, DNA fingerprinting, restriction enzymes, sequencing and cloning techniques. However, before we ever knew what a gene was, humans were manipulating cells in some very industrious ways, to produce foods, chemicals or improved crops. The list below outlines some of the more historical biotechnological techniques that laid the groundwork for this area of study, before the term "biotechnology" was ever used.

Fermentation to Produce Foods
Fermentation is perhaps the most ancient biotechnological discovery. Over 10,000 years ago mankind was producing wine, beer, vinegar and bread using microorganisms, primarily yeast. Yogurt was produced by lactic acid bacteria in milk and molds were used to produce cheese. These processes are still in use today for the production of modern foods. However, the cultures that are used have been purified and often genetically refined to maintain the most desirable traits and highest quality of products.

Industrial Fermentation
In 1897 the discovery that enzymes from yeast can convert sugar to alcohol lead to industrial processes for chemicals such as butanol, acetone and glycerol. Fermentation processes are still in use today in many modern biotech organizations, often for the production of enzymes to be used in pharmaceutical processes, environmental remediation and other industrial processes.

Food Preservation
Drying, salting and freezing foods to prevent spoilage by microorganisms were practiced long before anyone really understood why they worked or even fully knew what caused the food to spoil in the first place.

Quarantines
The practice of quarantining to prevent the spread of disease was in place long before the origins of disease were known. However, it demonstrates early acceptance that illness could be passed from an infected individual to another healthy individual, who would then begin to have symptoms of the disease.

Selective Plant Breeding
Crop improvement, by selecting seeds from the most successful or healthiest plants, to obtain a new crop having the most desirable traits, is a form of early crop technology. Farmers learned that using only the seeds from the best plants would eventually enhance and strengthen the desired traits in subsequent crops. In the mid-1860's, Gregor Mendel's studies on inheritable traits of peas improved our understanding of genetic inheritance and lead to practices of cross-breeding (now known as hybridization).

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Biotechnology in Everyday Life

This list contains some of products of enzyme biotechnology you might use everyday in your own home. In many cases, the commercial processes first exploited naturally occurring enzymes. However, this does not mean the enzyme(s) being used were as efficient as they could be. With time, research, and improved protein engineering methods, many enzymes have been genetically modified to be more effective at the desired temperatures, pH, or under other manufacturing conditions typically inhibitory to enzyme activity (eg. harsh chemicals), making them more suitable and efficient for industrial or home applications.

Stickies Removal
Enzymes are used by the pulp and paper industry for the removal of “stickies”, the glues, adhesives and coatings that are introduced to pulp during recycling of paper. Stickies are tacky, hydrophobic, pliable organic materials that not only reduce the quality of the final paper product, but can clog the paper mill machinery and cost hours of downtime. Chemcial methods for removal of stickies have, historically, not been 100% satisfactory.

Stickies are held together by ester bonds, and the use of esterase enzymes in pulp has vastly improved their removal. Esterases cut the stickies into smaller, more water soluble compounds, facilitating their removal from the pulp. Since the early half of this decade, esterases have become a common approach to stickies control. Their limitations are, being enzymes, they are typically only effective at moderate temperature and pH. Also, certain esterases might only be effective against certain types of esters and the presence of other chemicals in the pulp can inhibit their activity. The search is on for new enzymes, and genetic modifications of existing enzymes, to broaden their effective temperature and pH ranges, and substrate capabilities.

Detergents
Enzymes have been used in many kinds of detergents for over 30 years, since they were first introduced by Novozymes. Traditional use of enzymes in laundry detergents involved those that degrade proteins causing stains, such as those found in grass stains, red wine and soil. Lipases are another useful class of enzymes that can be used to dissolve fat stains and clean grease traps or other fat-based cleaning applications.

Currently, a popular area of research is the investigation of enzymes that can tolerate, or even have higher activities, in hot and cold temperatures. The search for thermotolerant and cryotolerant enzymes has spanned the globe. These enzymes are especially desirable for improving laundry processes in hot water cycles and/or at low temperatures for washing colors and darks. They are also useful for industrial processes where high temperatures are required, or for bioremediation under harsh conditions (eg. in the arctic). Recombinant enzymes (engineered proteins) are being sought using different DNA technologies such as site-directed mutagenesis and DNA shuffling.

Textiles
Enzymes are now widely used to prepare the fabrics that your clothing, furniture and other household items are made of. Increasing demands to reduce pollution caused by the textile industry has fueled biotechnological advances that have replaced harsh chemicals with enzymes in nearly all textile manufacturing processes. Enzymes are used to enhance the preparation of cotton for weaving, reduce impurities, minimize “pulls” in fabric, or as pre-treatment before dying to reduce rinsing time and improve colour quality. All of these steps not only make the process less toxic and eco-friendly, they reduce costs associated with the production process, and consumption of natural resources (water, electricity, fuels), while also improving the quality of the final textile product.

Foods and Beverages
This is the domestic application for enzyme technology that most people are already familiar with. Historically, humans have been using enzymes for centuries, in early biotechnological practices, to produce foods, without really knowing it. It was possible to make wine, beer, vinegar and cheeses, for example, because of the enzymes in the yeasts and bacteria that were utilized.

Biotechnology has made it possible to isolate and characterize the specific enzymes responsible for these processes. It has allowed the development of specialized strains for specific uses that improve the flavour and quality of each product. Enzymes can also be used to make the process cheaper and more predictable, so a quality product is ensured with every batch brewed. Other enzymes reduce the length of time required for aging, help clarify or stabilize the product, or help control alcohol and sugar contents.

For years, enzymes have also been used to turn starch into sugar. Corn and wheat syrups are used throughout the food industry as sweeteners. Using enzyme technology, the production of these sweeteners can be less expensive than using sugarcane sugar. Enzymes have been developed and enhanced using biotechnological methods, for every step of the process.

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Bioremediation and Biodegradation

Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms in an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment is an absolute requirement to promote a sustainable development of our society with low environmental impact. Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and biotechnology is taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. New methodological breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes.

Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB).

Bioremediation

Definition:

The use of living organisms for the recovery/ cleaning up of a contaminated medium (soil, sediment, air, water). The process of bioremediation might involve introduction of new organisms to a site, or adjustment of environmental conditions to enhance degradation rates of indigenous fauna.

Bioremediation can be applied to recover brownfields for development and for preparing contaminated industrial effluents prior to discharge into waterways. Bioremediation technologies are also applied to contaminated wastewater, ground or surface waters, soils, sediments and air where there has been either accidental or intentional release of pollutants or chemicals that pose a risk to human, animal or ecosystem health.

Different approaches to bioremediation take advantage of the metabolic processes of different organisms for degradation, or sequestering and concentration, of different contaminants. For example, soil bioremediation might be performed under either aerobic or anaerobic conditions, and involve optimization of the metabolic pathways of bacteria or fungi for degradation of hydrocarbons, aromatic compounds or chlorinated pesticides. Phytoremediation is a bioremediation process using plants and is often proposed for bioaccumulation of metals.

Bioremediation using genetically engineered microorganisms (GEMs), carrying recombinant proteins, is still relatively uncommon due to regulatory constraints related to their release and control. Other methods of enzyme optimization that do not include gene cloning technqiues, might be applied to indigenous microorganisms in order to enhance their pre-existing traits.
Examples: Nutrients were added to the soil to enhance bacterial degradation of contaminants and increase the rate of bioremediation on the brownfield site.

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